Quantum tunnelling may be considered a manifestation of virtual particle exchanges.
2.
Consider two repeated operations of such a particle exchange:
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How does the virtual particle exchange work for attraction?
4.
In the t-channel, the particles exchange intermediate states by emission and absorption.
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See Path-integral formulation of virtual-particle exchange for an application of this integral.
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The mechanics of virtual-particle exchange is best described with the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics.
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The Feynman rule for a particle exchange is to use the propagator; the propagator for a massive meson is-4 \ pi / ( k ^ 2 + m ^ 2 ).
8.
:With regard to the electromagnetic force question, the photon is the force carrier, a virtual particle exchanged in an exceedingly short period of time, which causes repulsion between like charges.
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For non-interacting identical particles, the potential is still a sum, but wavefunction is a bit more complicated it is a sum over the permutations of products of the separate wavefunctions to account for particle exchange.
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The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle exchange with a reservoir, etc.
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